2/2. The Immigration Skills Charge was a July 2015 budget measure, following Migration Advisory Committee advice. Introduced in 2017, collected by Home Office from employers, sent to HM Treasury and not actually spent on skills. Or not in a way that HMT, Home office or DFE has ever tried to prove.

Apart from a few bootcamps and the Multiply scheme for adult maths, public spending via adult skills budget in 2024 much the same as it was in 2015 when the Immigration Skills Charge was announced. Mayors were given adult skills powers from 2019 onwards but over budgets fixed in cash terms